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Search metadata Search full text of books Search TV captions Search archived web sites Advanced Search. Libro - Wikipedia. Un libro . I libri sono pertanto opere letterarie e talvolta una stessa opera . Nella biblioteconomia e scienza dell'informazione un libro . La biblioteca . Google ha stimato che al 2. Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche . Un'evoluzione identica ha sub. In russo ed in serbo, altra lingua slava, le parole . Se ne deduce che le prime scritture delle lingue indoeuropee possano esser state intagliate su legno di faggio. La scrittura, un sistema di segni durevoli che permette di trasmettere e conservare le informazioni, ha cominciato a svilupparsi tra il VII e il IV millennio a. C. In seguito . Lo studio di queste iscrizioni . La scrittura alfabetica emerse in Egitto circa 5. Gli antichi Egizi erano soliti scrivere scrivere sul papiro, una pianta coltivata lungo il fiume Nilo. Inizialmente i termini non erano separati l'uno dall'altro (scriptura continua) e non c'era punteggiatura. I testi venivano scritti da destra a sinistra, da sinistra a destra, e anche in modo che le linee alternate si leggessero in direzioni opposte. Il termine tecnico per questo tipo di scrittura, con un andamento che ricorda quello de solchi tracciati dall'aratro in un campo, . Furono infatti usate come mezzo di scrittura, specialmente per il cuneiforme, durante tutta l'Et. Servivano da materiale normale di scrittura nelle scuole, in contabilit. Avevano il vantaggio di essere riutilizzabili: la cera poteva essere fusa e riformare una . Etimologia del termine. La parola italiana libro deriva dal latino liber. Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche "corteccia", ma visto che era un materiale.L'usanza di legare insieme diverse tavolette di cera (romano pugillares) . Erano utilizzate anche le cortecce di albero, come per esempio quelle della Tilia, e altri materiali consimili. La parola greca per papiro come materiale di scrittura (biblion) e libro (biblos) proviene dal porto fenicio di Biblo, da dove si esportava il papiro verso la Grecia. Tomus fu usato dai latini con lo stesso significato di volumen (vedi sotto anche la spiegazione di Isidoro di Siviglia). Che fossero fatti di papiro, pergamena o carta, i rotoli furono la forma libraria dominante della cultura ellenistica, romana, cinese ed ebraica. Il formato di codex si stabil. The franc also commonly distinguished as the French franc (FF), was a currency of France. Between 13, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and. Spelling Word List and Lists, 1st Grade, 2nd Grade, 3rd Grade, 4th Grade, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th Grades, high school. We provide excellent essay writing service 24/7. Enjoy proficient essay writing and custom writing services provided by professional academic writers. Viene chiamato codex per metafora di un tronco (codex) d'albero o di vite, come se fosse un ceppo di legno, poich. La prima menzione scritta del codice come forma di libro . Tuttavia, il codice non si guadagn. Gli autori cristiani potrebbero anche aver voluto distinguere i loro scritti dai testi pagani scritti su rotoli. La storia del libro continua a svilupparsi con la graduale transizione dal rotolo al codex, spostandosi dal Vicino Oriente del II- II millennio a. C. All'arrivo del Medioevo, circa mezzo millennio dopo, i codici - di foggia e costruzione in tutto simili al libro moderno - rimpiazzarono il rotolo e furono composti principalmente di pergamena. Il rotolo continu. Fu un cambiamento che influ. Quattro son troppi? Potrai pagarli due, e Trifone il libraio ci far. Haec tibi, multiplici quae structa est massa tabella, / Carmina Nasonis quinque decemque gerit. Questa mole composta da numerosi fogli contiene quindici libri poetici del Nasone »(Marziale XIV. Il libro antico. L'oggetto libro sub. Dal II secolo a. C. Nel mondo antico non godette di molta fortuna a causa del prezzo elevato rispetto a quello del papiro. Tuttavia aveva il vantaggio di una maggiore resistenza e la possibilit. Il libro in forma di rotolo consisteva in fogli preparati da fibre di papiro (phylire) disposte in uno strato orizzontale (lo strato che poi riceveva la scrittura) sovrapposto ad uno strato verticale (la faccia opposta). I fogli cos. La scrittura era effettuata su colonne, generalmente sul lato del papiro che presentava le fibre orizzontali. Non si hanno molte testimonianze sui rotoli di pergamena tuttavia la loro forma era simile a quella dei libri in papiro. Gli inchiostri neri utilizzati erano a base di nerofumo e gomma arabica. Dal II secolo d. C. La vecchia forma libraria a rotolo scompare in ambito librario. In forma notevolmente differente permane invece in ambito archivistico. Nel Medio Evo si fanno strada alcune innovazioni: nuovi inchiostri ferro gallici e, a partire dalla met. Il prezzo molto basso di questo materiale, ricavato da stracci e quindi pi. Ma bisogna aspettare la seconda met. Questo mezzo, permettendo l'accelerazione della produzione delle copie di testi contribuisce alla diffusione del libro e della cultura. La parola membranae, letteralmente . Altri suoi distici rivelano che tra i regali fatti da Marziale c'erano copie di Virgilio, di Cicerone e Livio. Le parole di Marziale danno la distinta impressione che tali edizioni fossero qualcosa di recentemente introdotto. Il codice si origin. Quando c'era bisogno di pi. Sono stati rinvenuti . Nel tempo, furono anche disponibili modelli di lusso fatti con tavolette di avorio invece che di legno. I romani chiamarono tali tavolette col nome di codex e solo molto pi. Ad un certo punto i romani inventarono un taccuino pi. Il passo fu breve dall'usare due o tre fogli come taccuino al legarne insieme una certa quantit. Il grande vantaggio che offrivano rispetto ai rolli era la capienza, vantaggio che sorgeva dal fatto che la facciata esterna del rotolo era lasciata in bianco, vuota. Il codice invece aveva scritte entrambe le facciate di ogni pagina, come in un libro moderno.(LA). Quam brevis inmensum cepit membrana Maronem! Ipsius vultus prima tabella gerit. La prima pagina porta il volto del poeta. Ma copie erano anche fatte di fogli di papiro. In Egitto, dove cresceva la pianta del papiro ed era centro della sua manifattura per materiale scrittorio, il codex di tale materiale era naturalmente pi. Quando i greci ed i romani disponevano solo del rotolo per scrivere libri, si preferiva usare il papiro piuttosto che la pergamena. Fece la sua comparsa in Egitto non molto dopo il tempo di Marziale, nel II secolo d. C., o forse anche prima, alla fine del I secolo. Il suo debutto fu modesto. A tutt'oggi sono stati rinvenuti 1. Nel terzo secolo la percentuale aumenta dall'1,5% a circa il 1. Verso il 3. 00 d. C. Il rotolo comunque aveva ancora parecchi secoli davanti a s. In teoria, in Egitto, terra ricca di pianta di papiro, il codice papiraceo avrebbe dovuto regnar supremo, ma non fu cos. Sebbene gli undici codici della Bibbia datati in quel secolo fossero papiracei, esistono circa 1. Non ne scegliemmo alcuno, ma ne raccogliemmo altri otto per i quali gli diedi 1. Il codex tanto apprezzato da Marziale aveva quindi fatto molta strada da Roma. Nel terzo secolo, quando tali codici divennero alquanto diffusi, quelli di pergamena iniziarono ad essere popolari. Il numero totale di codici sopravvissuti correntemente ammontano a pi. Nel quarto secolo la percentuale si alza al 3. V secolo. In breve, anche in Egitto, la fonte mondiale del papiro, il codice di pergamena occupava una notevole quota di mercato. Sono tutti di pergamena, edizioni eleganti, scritti in elaborata calligrafia su sottili fogli di pergamena. Per tali edizioni di lusso il papiro era certamente inadatto. Titoli di compilazioni celebri, il Codice teodosiano promulgato nel 4. Codice giustinianeo promulgato nel 5. Dall'altro lato, basandoci sulle annotazioni di Libanio, intellettuale del IV secolo che nelle sue molteplici attivit. Le ragioni erano buone: la pergamena poteva resistere a maltrattamenti vari, il codice poteva venir consultato velocemente per riferimenti giuridici, sentenze e giudizi, e cos. La pergamena usata doveva certo essere di bassa qualit. Il peso era per. Il papiro divenne difficile da reperire a causa della mancanza di contatti con l'Antico Egitto e la pergamena, che era stata usata da secoli, divenne il materiale di scrittura principale. I monasteri continuarono la tradizione scritturale latina dell'Impero romano d'Occidente. Cassiodoro, nel Monastero di Vivario (fondato verso il 5. XLVIII), che riserva certi momenti alla lettura, influenz. La tradizione e lo stile dell'Impero romano predominava ancora, ma gradualmente emerse la cultura peculiare libro medievale. Prima dell'invenzione e adozione del torchio calcografico, quasi tutti i libri venivano copiati a mano, il che rendeva i libri costosi e relativamente rari. I piccoli monasteri di solito possedevano poche dozzine di libri, forse qualche centinaio quelli di medie dimensioni. Con il IX secolo, le pi! Alcuni di questi esemplari sono esposti nei musei. La luce artificiale era proibita per paura che potesse danneggiare i manoscritti. Esistevano cinque tipi di scribi. La pergamena doveva essere preparata, poi le pagine libere venivano pianificate e rigate con uno strumento appuntito o un piombo, dopo di che il testo era scritto dallo scriba, che di solito lasciava aree vuote a scopo illustrativo e rubricativo. Infine, il libro veniva rilegato dal rilegatore. Esistono testi scritti in rosso o addirittura in oro, e diversi colori venivano utilizzati per le miniature. A volte la pergamena era tutta di colore viola e il testo vi era scritto in oro o argento (per esempio, il Codex Argenteus). Tuttavia, l'uso di spazi tra le parole non divenne comune prima del XII secolo. Si sostiene che l'uso di spaziatura tra parole dimostra il passaggio dalla lettura semi- vocalizzata a quella silenziosa. Le copertine erano fatte di legno e ricoperte di cuoio. Durante il Tardo Medioevo, quando cominciarono a sorgere le biblioteche pubbliche, e fino al XVIII secolo, i libri venivano spesso incatenati ad una libreria o scrivania per impedirne il furto. Questi libri attaccati a catena sono chiamati libri catenati. Vedi illustrazione a margine. Dapprima, i libri erano copiati prevalentemente nei monasteri, uno alla volta. Con l'apparire delle universit. I libri furono divisi in fogli non legati (pecia), che furono distribuiti a differenti copisti e di conseguenza la velocit. Il sistema venne gestito da corporazioni secolari di cartolai, che produssero sia materiale religioso che laico. Secondo la tradizione ebraica, il rotolo della Torah posto nella sinagoga deve esser scritto a mano su pergamena e quindi un libro stampato non . Lo scriba ebraico (sofer) . Un certo numero di citt. San Francisco Drivers Can't Escape Legendary Traffic Even At 4 A. M. The Bay Area seems like a special kind of hell for commuters. The city and surrounding communities are struggling to keep up with the influx of people brought by the tech industry. That means higher rent, fancier restaurants and more time spent on the roads.
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Avoid breathing the fumes caused by the explosion. Adult supervision is required. Abstract. Hold onto your hats! In this science fair project, you will make a device that sends a film canister across the room with a small chemical explosion. The energy for the explosion is derived from the combustion of ethanol. You will determine the launch velocity of the canister, as well as devise ways to study changes in gas pressure and volume due to the explosion. This science fair project is sure to take your breath away! You will study the chemistry and physics of the explosion. Credits. David Whyte, Ph. D, Science Buddies. This science fair project is based on information on following website: Binaca. Fresh, Inc. Gorilla. Chem. In this chemistry and physics science fair project, you will use the combustion of ethanol to provide energy for a small explosion. The chemical equation that describes the. It also forms energy in the form of light, but this is small compared to the heat energy. Ethanol and oxygen are the reactants, and water and carbon dioxide are the chemical products of the equation. Note that the equation is balanced, so that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides; for example, there are two carbon atoms on both sides. Oxygen, which forms about 2. When it reacts with ethanol, the reaction proceeds very quickly and produces a substantial amount of heat. But a mixture of oxygen and ethanol is stable unless you provide a . Once the two chemicals begin to react, the reaction itself produces enough energy to sustain further combustion. The reaction stops when the reactants are used up. One way to create an explosion is to increase the number of molecules that are in the form of a gas. If all of the molecules in Equation 1 were gas molecules, there would be a net increase from four molecules (one ethanol and three oxygen) to five molecules (three water and two carbon dioxide). Creating more gas molecules in a fixed volume will increase the pressure, just as pumping air into a tire or basketball increases its pressure. If the pressure is greater than the container can handle, an explosion can occur. For this science fair project, you will ignite a small amount of ethanol to launch a film canister. The volume of the canister is small enough that there is little danger of getting injured, but it will make quite a pop! Watch the video below for a preview. Some of the ethanol will be in the form of a liquid. Also, some of the water that is a reaction product will be liquid. Thus, some of molecules will not be in the form of a gas because the temperature will be low enough that they will condense to the liquid form. In this video, the Science Buddies Summer Science Fellows demonstrate that a little bit of breath spray and a spark can lead to a fun 'pop' and be a gateway to safely explore some explosive chemistry and physics. Increasing the amount of gas molecules is not the only way to increase pressure. Another way to increase pressure in a container with a fixed volume is to increase the temperature. An increase in temperature causes the molecules in the gas to move faster. The collisions of these more energetic molecules against the sides of the container results in a higher pressure. In summary, the pressure in a closed container will increase if more molecules of gas are added, or if the temperature increases. This relationship is captured in the ideal gas equation: Equation 2: P = pressure, in atmospheres (atm)V = volume, in liters (L)n = amount of gas, in moles (mol)R = gas constant, 0. L x atm)/(mol x K)T = temperature, in degrees Kelvin (K)The gas equation states that the pressure times the volume equals the product of the number of moles, the gas constant, and the temperature. The key point about this equation, for the purposes of this science fair project, is that it clearly shows the mathematical relationship between pressure, amount of gas, and temperature. The pressure, P, is directly proportional to n, and T. If you double P in the equation, keeping V, n, and R the same, then T will also double. The same goes for n and P. The equation is precise only for . But the ideal gas equation is a useful approximation of this real- world experiment. A version of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. The apparatus consists of a piece of wood with the top of a film canister glued onto it. The metal ends of a grill spark igniter are passed through a hole in the wood and through the film canister top. The metal ends will deliver a spark when the red button is pushed. When you add a fuel to the film canister and attach it to the plastic top that is glued to the board, a spark will ignite the fuel and send the canister flying. The fuel used to launch the canister is Binaca breath spray (ethanol and isopropane). A tire pressure gauge is used to measure the maximum pressure created inside the canister when the ethanol gas is ignited. Figure 1. Picture of a film canister projectile. The top of a film canister is glued to a piece of wood. A spark generator is attached, through a hole in the wood, to deliver a spark when the red button is pushed. A pressure gauge is also attached and is connected to the space inside the canister by another hole in the wood. Binaca breath spray is used as fuel to launch the canister. Note the electrical tape around the body of the spark unit to prevent a shock. Once you have the launch velocity, you can calculate the kinetic energy of the canister. The kinetic energy of the canister is the energy due to its mass and velocity. The formula for calculating the kinetic energy is given below. You can also calculate the maximum potential energy, which is determined by how high the canister flies; the higher it goes, the higher the potential energy. The equation for potential energy is given below. If you shoot the canister straight up, it will have zero velocity for a very brief time at the highest point as it stops going up and starts coming down. At this moment, the kinetic energy is at its lowest and the potential energy is at its highest. Several basic physics formulas for ballistic projectiles are shown below. The projectiles are assumed to be shot 9. The formulas are approximations because they assume there is no air resistance. Assume the mass of the canister is 4 grams (g). Equation 8: The kinetic energy of the canister at the time of launch is equal to one- half its mass, times the launch velocity squared. Equation 9: The potential energy of the canister at its maximum height equals its mass times g, times the height. Note from Equation 3 that you can determine launch velocity if you know the flight time. Time of flight is easy to measure; just use the stopwatch to time the interval from launch to landing. Once you have calculated the launch velocity, you can calculate the maximum height the canister flies using Equation 4. Remember that the equations are approximations and do not take into account the air resistance. You will use the trajectory equations to determine the launch velocity of the canister, its maximum height, and its kinetic and potential energy. The kinetic energy of the canister gives you a minimum value for the chemical energy of the combustion reaction. It is a minimum value because energy is lost as heat, friction, and in other ways. As you work through the procedure, consider where the energy is flowing. The overall flow of energy when the canister is launched straight up follows this sequence: Chemical energy: Energy released as heat causes an abrupt pressure rise in the canister. Kinetic energy: The canister is launched upward. Potential energy: This reaches a maximum at the maximum height. It returns to zero when the canister lands. Kinetic energy: The potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the canister falls back to Earth. When the fuel is ignited, the combustion of the alcohol will create a sharp rise in the pressure inside of the canister. One goal of this science fair project is to measure the pressure in the canister. You can then estimate the temperature. The situation inside the canister is far from ideal, so the estimates will be very rough. Another goal is to measure the volume change over the course of the explosion, using a balloon attached to the canister. Now you're ready to have a blast! Terms and Concepts. Chemical explosion. Chemical reaction. Gas pressure. Combustion. Ethanol. Chemical equation. Reactant. Product. Balanced equation. Condense. Ideal gas equation. Mole (mol)Kelvin (K)Proportional. Launch velocity. Kinetic energy. Potential energy. Questions. How does the combustion of ethanol in the film canister compare to the combustion of gasoline in a car engine? How does the combustion of ethanol in the film canister compare to the metabolism of ethanol by yeast? Will any concentration of ethanol gas in air form an explosive mixture, or are there upper and lower limits in its concentration? The alcohol used in most breath sprays is . Ethanol Combustion. Retrieved February 1. SS0. 77. html. NASA. Ballistic Flight Equations. Retrieved November 1. WWW/K- 1. 2/airplane/ballflght. Nave, R. All about trajectories. Retrieved February 1. Hbase/traj. html. Materials and Equipment Empty film canisters with tops (4; you only need 2, but have a couple extra on hand in case you mess up while drilling.)Piece of wood, 4- . The drilled holes need to be big enough to just allow the igniter wires to pass through, so start with a 5/3. Safety goggles. Igniter. Grill igniters are available at most hardware stores. The spark mechanism from electronic lighters will also work. |
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